Cultivation Theory

Cultivation theory is a social theory which examined the long-term effects of television on American audiences.
Developed by George Gerbner and Larry Gross of the University of Pennsylvania, cultivation theory derived from several large-scale research projects as part of an overall research project entitled 'Cultural Indicators'. The purpose of the Cultural Indicators project was to identify and track the 'cultivated' effects of television on viewers. They were "concerned with the effects of television programming (particularly violent programming) on the attitudes and behaviors of the American public" (Miller, 2005, p. 281).
Gerbner and Gross (1976) assert that the overall concern about the effects of television on audiences stemmed from the unprecedented centrality of television in American culture. They posited that television as a mass medium of communication had formed in to a common symbolic environment that bound diverse communities together, socializing people in to standardized roles and behaviours. They compared the power of television to the power of religion, saying that television was to modern society what religion once was in earlier times.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Definition
• 2 Testing the theory
o 2.1 Content analysis
o 2.2 Cultural indicators analysis
o 2.3 Cultivation analysis
• 3 Critiques and extensions
o 3.1 Weak and limited effects
o 3.2 Nature of television viewing
o 3.3 The cultivation effect
• 4 See also
• 5 References

[edit] Definition
According to Miller (2005: 282), cultivation theory was not developed to study "targeted and specific effects (e.g., that watching Superman will lead children to attempt to fly by jumping out the window) [but rather] in terms of the cumulative and overarching impact [television] has on the way we see the world in which we live". Hence the term 'Cultivation Analysis'.
Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli (1986) argued that while religion or education had previously been greater influences on social trends and mores, now "[t]elevision is the source of the most broadly shared images and messages in history...Television cultivates from infancy the very predispositions and preferences that used to be acquired from other primary sources ... The repetitive pattern of television's mass-produced messages and images forms the mainstream of a common symbolic environment" (pp. 17 – 18).
Cultivation theory in its most basic form, then, suggests that exposure to television, over time, subtly "cultivates" viewers' perceptions of reality. This cultivation can have an impact even on light viewers of TV, because the impact on heavy viewers has an impact on our entire culture. Gerbner and Gross (1976) say "[t]elevision is a medium of the socialization of most people into standardized roles and behaviors. Its function is in a word, enculturation" (p. 175).
Stated most simply, the central hypothesis explored in cultivation research is that those who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect the most common and recurrent messages of the television world, compared with people who watch less television, but are otherwise comparable in terms of important demographic characteristics (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002).
Gerbner et al. (1986) go on to argue the impact of television on its viewers is not unidirectional, that the "use of the term cultivation for television's contribution to conception of social reality... (does not) necessarily imply a one-way, monolithic process. The effects of a pervasive medium upon the composition and structure of the symbolic environment are subtle, complex, and intermingled with other influences. This perspective, therefore, assumes an interaction between the medium and its publics" (p. 23).
Cultivation Theory (George Gerbner, 1960’s) is a top down, linear, closed communication model.
It regards audiences as passive, presenting ideas to society as a mass with meaning open to little or no interpretation. The ideas presented to a passive audience are often accepted, therefore influencing large groups into conforming behind ideas, meaning that the media exerts a significant influence over audiences. This audience is seen as very vulnerable and easily manipulated.
Cultivation Theory looks at media as having a long term passive effect on audiences, which starts off small at first but has a compound effect, an example of this is body image and the bombardment of images.
An advantage of this theory is that it is easy to apply to a wide range of texts and to a wide range of audience members, a disadvantage however is that it doesn’t look at the background, ethnicity, gender etc. of audiences.
In 1968 Gerbner conducted a survey to demonstrate this theory. From his results he placed television viewers into three categories; light viewers (less than 2 hours a day), medium viewers (2–4 hours a day) and heavy viewers (more than 4 hours a day). He found that heavy viewers held beliefs and opinions similar to those portrayed on television rather than the real world which demonstrates the compound effect of media influence.
An advantage to this study is that surveys are able to ask specific detailed questions and can be applied over different demographic groups. Disadvantages to this study is that survey questions can be interpreted incorrectly resulting in inaccurate answers and that participants of the survey may or may not be doing the survey voluntarily which could influence how they respond to the survey and the type of people being surveyed
Gerbner created the cultivation theory as one part of a three part research strategy, called Cultural Indicators. The concept of a cultural "indicator" was developed by Gerbner in order to be a more common idea of a social indicator. The first part of this strategy is known as the institutional process analysis. This investigates how the flow of media messages is produced and managed, how decisions are made, and how media organizations function. Ultimately, ias asked; What are the processes, pressures, and constraints, that influence and underline the production of mass media content? The second part of this strategy is known as message system analysis, which has been used since 1967 to track the most stable and recurrent images in media content. This is in terms of violence, race & ethnicity, gender, and occupation. It asked what are the dominant patterns of images, messages, and facts, values and lessons, expressed in media messages? The final part of the research study is the cultivation analysis. This asked what is the relationship between attention to these messages and audiences' conceptions of social reality? (Morgan, p. 70) and (Shanahan and Morgan p. 6 -7).
[edit] Testing the theory
Research about the effects of TV began with the investigation in the studies mentioned above and has been most often tested "through a comparison of the content of television and the beliefs people hold about the nature of the world" (Miller, 2005, 283).
Gerbner et al. (1976) say "Instead of asking what communication 'variables' might propagate what kinds of individual behavior changes, we want to know what types of common consciousness whole systems of messages might cultivate" because "the world of TV drama consists of a complex and integrated system of characters, events, actions, and relationships whose effects cannot be measured with regard to any single element or program seen in isolation" (p. 181).
Gerbner et al. (1976) say, "We believe that the key to the answer rests in a search for those assumptions about the 'facts' of life and society that television cultivates in its more faithful viewers. That search requires two different methods of research" (p. 181). They are content analysis and cultural indicators analysis.
[edit] Content analysis
The first step in cultivation research is content analysis: in short, the process of studying the subject matter on TV. For example, in 1969, Gerbner and his colleagues "began to chart the content of prime-time and weekend children's television programming, and Gerbner et al. (1986, p. 25) noted that 2,105 programs, 6,055 major characters, and 19,116 minor characters had been analyzed by 1984. Significantly, Gerbner et al. (pp. 25 - 26) noted the following patterns: " (Miller, 2005, pp. 283 – 284)
• Men outnumbered women three to one on television
• Older people and younger people are underrepresented on television
• Blacks and Hispanics are underrepresented on [American] television
• Seventy percent of television characters are "middle class"
• Crime is 10 times as rampant in the "television world"
[edit] Cultural indicators analysis
The second step in cultivation research is the cultural indicators analysis: the process of "assessing individuals' beliefs about what the world is like" (Miller, 2005, p. 284). This analysis involves surveys of individuals using factual questions about the world. "For example, an analysis of perceptions about violence might ask respondents about the likelihood of being a victim of violent crime. The forced-choice answer to these questions would include both a 'television response' (e.g., a 1 out of 10 chance of being a victim) and a 'non-television response' (e.g., a much smaller chance closer to the actual likelihood of being a victim)" (Miller, 2005, 284).
Miller (2005) says a separate measure (often at a different point in time) would be used to assess the overall viewing habits of the individual (p. 283).
[edit] Cultivation analysis
The final step in cultivation research is cultivation analysis: "a comparison between light television viewers and heavy television viewers. If heavy television viewers tended to provide answers that were more in line with the television response, researchers would have support for the cultivation hypothesis" (Miller, 2005, p. 283).
According to Michael Morgan, "a cultivation analysis should always begin by identifying the most common and stable patterns in television content, emphasizing the consistent images, portrayals, and values that cut across program genres. This is accomplished either by conducting a message system analysis or by examining existing content studies. In general system analysis illuminates four dimensions of content: existence (what is in the symbolic world?), priorities (what is important?), values (what is right or wrong, good, or bad, etc?), and relationships (what is related to what else, and how?). These dimensions illuminate the symbolic functions of how things work in the world of storytelling.
Once those patterns are identified, the goal is to ascertain of those who spend time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect those particular messages and lessons. That is, cultivation analysts develop hypothesis about what heavy viewers would be expected to think about some topic or issue, if they think about it in terms of the way it is presented on television. (Morgan, p. 73)"
[edit] Critiques and extensions
The main critiques of cultivation theory include:
[edit] Weak and limited effects
"Some of the earliest (and continuing) critiques of cultivation theory noted the relatively small effects that were found for cultivation processes and the fact that these effects were further diminished when controlling for a number of relevant demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, education). For example...Hirsch (1980) concluded that 'across most of the attitude items reported by the Annenberg group...the effect of television viewing is clearly minimal when the responses of nonviewers and extreme viewers are analyzed separately'...(and) a recent analysis of cultivation research (Morgan Shanahan, 1997) found an average effect size for cultivation effects to be only .01" (Miller, 2005, p. 286).
Gerbner et al. (1986) respond by saying, "If , as we argue, the messages are so stable, the medium is so ubiquitous, and accumulated total exposure is what counts, then almost everyone should be affected. Even light viewers live in the same cultural environment as most others who do watch television. It is clear, then, that the cards are stacked against finding evidence of effects. Therefore, the discovery of a systematic pattern of even small but pervasive differences between light and heavy viewers may indicate far-reaching consequences" (p. 21).
Gerbner et al. (1986) continue by suggesting that evidence of even the smallest effects can make a difference when he says "after all, a single percentage point difference in ratings is worth millions of dollars in advertising revenue..." (p. 21).
One of Gerbner's main faults with the theory is that, in his defense of it, he has thrown out the empirical notion of falsifiability. If he has a counter-argument for every challenge to Cultivation Theory and doesn't explain what data could prove it false, then it cannot be a theory in the true social scientific sense.
Two ways "in which cultivation theorists have extended their theory to account for small effects and differences in effects among subgroups" (Miller, 2005, p. 286) are the concepts of mainstreaming and resonance, added to the theory.
• Mainstreaming "means that television viewing may absorb or override differences in perspective and behavior that stem from other social, cultural, and demographic influences. It represents the homogenization of divergent views and a convergence of disparate viewers (p. 31)" (Miller, 2005, 286).
• Resonance "is another concept proposed to explain differential cultivation effects across groups of viewers. The concept suggests that the effects of television viewing will be particularly pronounced for individuals who have had related experience in real life. That is for a recent mugging victim or someone who lives in a high crime neighborhood, the portrayal of violence on television will resonate and be particularly influential" (Miller, 2005, 286).
[edit] Nature of television viewing
Critics also question the part of the theory that says "Compared to other media, television provides a relatively restricted set of choices for a virtually unrestricted variety of interests and publics. Most of its programs are by commercial necessity designed to be watched by nearly everyone in a relatively nonselective fashion" (Gerbner et al, 1986, p. 19).
This suggestion has been met with opposition, especially since the widespread use of cable television, TiVo, and the like.
Several critics have suggested that changes in these assumptions might lead to better predictions about the cultivation effect. (Miller, 2005)
[edit] The cultivation effect
Miller (2005) says "Several critics have been levied against the link between viewing patterns and resultant views of the world" (p. 287). They have suggested the extension of cultivation theory by differentiating between first-order and second-order cultivation effects.
• "First-order cultivation effects refer to the effects of television on statistical descriptions about the world" (Miller, 2005, p. 287). For example, "a first-order effect would suggest that heavy viewers would overestimate the likelihood of being the victim of a crime" (Miller, 2005, p. 287).
• "Second-order cultivation effects refer to effects on beliefs about the general nature of the world" (Miller, 2005, p. 287). For example, "a second-order effect would suggest that heavy viewers would be more likely to view the world as a mean or scary place" (Miller, 2005, p. 287).
"Cultivation theorists have appreciated this distinction but never developed the implications of the distinctions on a theoretical level" (Miller, 2005, p. 287).
"In more recent years, the discussions regarding cultivation theory have been somewhat more measured and more concerned with extending the theory in a useful way (e.g., Hawkins & Pingree, 1980; Potter, 1993) (Miller, 2005, p. 286).

Engineering Technology

An engineering technologist, also called engologist or ingologist, is a specialist devoted to the implementation and extension of existing technology within a field of engineering. Technologists often support engineers in a wide variety of projects by applying basic engineering principles and technical skills. The work of technologists is usually focused on the portion of the technological spectrum closest to product improvement, manufacturing, construction, and engineering operational functions.
Internationally, the Sydney Accord is an agreement signed in 2001 acknowledging the academic equivalence of accredited engineering technology programs in the signatory nations. In some countries, only individuals who have graduated from an accredited curriculum in engineering technology and have a significant amount of work experience in their field may become registered technologists. A technologist's recognition may be in the form of a certification or a professional registration.
Nature of work
Technologists are employed in a large and wide-array of industries including: manufacturing, construction, industrial, maintenance, and even management. They may be hired as technology/technical managers, depending on the technologist's educational emphasis on management preparation. Entry-level positions such as product design, testing, development, systems engineering, field engineering, technical operations, and quality control are all common positions for engineering technology graduates.
In general, the work of engineering technologists focuses on the relatively practical application of engineering principles, whereas the work of engineers emphasizes the theoretical aspects of mathematical, scientific and engineering principles. The National Society of Professional Engineers describes the difference between engineering and engineering technology:
"The distinction between engineering and engineering technology emanates primarily from differences in their educational programs. Engineering programs are geared toward development of conceptual skills, and consist of a sequence of engineering fundamentals and design courses, built on a foundation of complex mathematics and science courses. Engineering technology programs are oriented toward application, and provide their students introductory mathematics and science courses, and only a qualitative introduction to engineering fundamentals. Thus, engineering programs provide their graduates a breadth and depth of knowledge that allows them to function as designers. Engineering technology programs prepare their graduates to apply others' designs."[1]
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology describes the difference between engineering and engineering technology as: "Engineering and technology are separate, but intimately related professions. Here are some of the ways they differ:
• Engineering undergraduate programs include more mathematics work and higher level mathematics than technology programs.
• Engineering undergraduate programs often focus on theory, while technology programs usually focus on application.
• Once they enter the workforce, engineering graduates typically spend their time planning, while engineering technology graduates spend their time making plans work.
• At ABET, engineering and engineering technology programs are evaluated and accredited by two separate accreditation commissions using two separate sets of accreditation criteria.
• Graduates from engineering programs are called engineers, while graduates of technology programs are often called technologists.
• Graduates from engineering technology programs are often hired as engineers.
• Some U.S. state boards of professional engineering licensure will allow only graduates of engineering programs—not engineering technology programs—to become licensed engineers."[2]
The engineering graduate typically requires a period of 'internship' since engineering programs stress fundamentals. The engineering technology graduate, however, is prepared to immediately begin technical assignments since technology programs stress current industrial practices and design procedures.[3]
Education and accreditation
Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, some post-secondary institutions began offering degrees in engineering technology. This was to address a need within the scientific, manufacturing, and engineering communities, as well as other industries, for professionals with hands-on and applications-based engineering knowledge. Depending on the institution, associate and/or bachelor degrees are offered, with some institutions also offering advanced degrees in technology.
In general, an engineering technologist receives a broad range of applied science and applied mathematics training, as well as the fundamentals of engineering in the student's area of focus. Engineering Technology programs typically include instruction in various engineering support functions for research, production, and operations, and applications to specific engineering specialties.[4][5] Information technology is primarily involved with the management, operation, and maintenance of computer systems and networks, along with an application of technology in diverse fields such as architecture, engineering, graphic design, telecommunications, computer science and network security. A technologist is also expected to have had some coursework in ethics.
International technology organizations from eight nations have signed a mutual recognition agreement called the Sydney Accord. The Sydney Accord represents an understanding that the academic awards of technologists can be recognized in all signatory states. The recognition of the Sydney Accord for technologists can be compared to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Dublin Accord for engineering technicians. The Engineering Technologist Mobility Forum is an international forum held by signatories of the Sydney Accord to explore mutual recognition for experienced engineering technologists and to remove artificial barriers to the free movement and practice of engineering technologists amongst their countries.
Graduates acquiring an associate's degree or lower typically find careers as engineering technicians. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics: "Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs often are hired to work as technologists or applied engineers, not technicians."[6] Technicians typically hold a two year associates degree, while technologists usually hold bachelors degrees.
Canada
In Canada, the new occupational category of Technologist was established in the 1960s in conjunction with an emerging system of community colleges and technical institutes. It was designed to effectively bridge the gap between the increasingly theoretical nature of engineering degrees and the predominately practical approach of technician and trades programs. Provincial associations may certify individuals as Certified Engineering Technologist (C.E.T.), Registered Engineering Technologist, Applied Science Technologist (AScT) or Technologue Professionel [T.P.]. These provincial associations also are constituent members of the Canadian Council of Technicians and Technologists (CCTT) which nationally accredits technology programs across Canada through its Canadian Technology Accreditation Board (CTAB). Nationally accredited Engineering Technology programs range from 2 to 3 years in length, depending on province, with 2 year programs leading to a C.Tech. certification and 3 year programs usually leading to a AScT, CET or RET certification.
United States
In the United States, Engineering Technology programs are accredited through the Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) or via The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (ATMAE). ABET has been accrediting Engineering Technology programs in the United States since 1946, with a current total of over 600 programs at over 230 institutions. In response to heavy demand, ABET began accrediting Engineering Technology programs internationally in 2007. Depending on the institution, associate and/or bachelor degrees are offered, with a few institutions also offering advanced degrees. The type, length, and quality of education offered can vary greatly depending on the educational institution and the specialty pursued within Engineering Technology. ATMAE programs in Engineering Technology require a management core.
In the United States the hierarchy of educational structure and acknowledgement start at the US Department of Education or The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). The U.S Department of Education acknowledges regional and national accreditations and CHEA recognizes specialty accreditations. Two technology accreditations are currently recognized by CHEA: The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (ATMAE) and the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Specifically CHEA recognizes ABET internationally and in the U.S. for accrediting engineering technology programs at the associate and baccalaureate level and it recognizes ATMAE in the U.S. only for accrediting non-engineering (i.e. engineering technology, engineering management, applied engineering, operations management, technology management, and specialized technology/technical degrees) associate, baccalaureate and master's level degree programs in industrial technology.
The Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology was admitted as a provisional member of International Technology Accords in 2007, and it signed the Sydney Accord in 2009.
Certification
Professional certification is the registration of engineering technologists to assure their qualification within their countries or territories. The Sydney Accord and the Engineering Technologist Mobility Forum (ETMF) are two international efforts to improve cross border recognition for technologists.
A certified engineering technologist is usually required apprentice for a term before being able to apply for certification through a local governing body. In that time the technologist must have completed tasks which directly apply to their area of study.
North America
In Canada, the regulated title for technologists is called Certified Engineering Technologist. Technology program certification is done through the Canadian Technology Accreditation Board (CTAB), often in conjunction with provincial associations that are affiliated with the Canadian Council of Technicians and Technologists. Graduated technologists are certified by their provincial bodies.
In the United States, technologist certification requires a bachelor's degree in an engineering technology program accredited by the Technology Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (TAC/ABET). One may also obtain a degree from an institution accredited through The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (formerly known as the National Association of Industrial Technology). Technologist registration in the United States is conducted by many independent societies and organizations. The lack of a unified registration for Technologist has left the profession in disarray. A government sponsored registration is opposed by the NCEES and NSPE. As a result, a true technologist registration has been prevented from maturing and the profession is often not seen as an independent field separate from design engineering. However, this status could change in the future now that the United States' ABET accreditation signed the Sydney Accord in June 2007. Sydney Accord nations have a distinct role for Technologist that is separate from the status of Technician or design engineering.
The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET) awards certification at two levels depending on work experience: the Associate Engineering Technologist (AT) and the Certified Engineering Technologist (CT). The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (ATMAE) awards two levels of certification in Technology Management: (1) Certified Technology Manager (CTM) and (2) Certified Senior Technology Manager (CSTM). ATMAE also awards two levels of certification in Manufacturing Specialist: (1) Certified Manufacturing Specialist (CMS) and (2) Certified Senior Manufacturing Specialist (CSMS). While the CTM and CMS certification are obtained through examination, the CSTM and CSMS require industry experience and continuous improvement via the obtainment of professional development units (PDUs).
Incorporated Engineer (UK)
In the United Kingdom, an Incorporated Engineer is a professional registered by the Engineering Council. The title Incorporated Engineer (IEng) is protected by civil law. Incorporated Engineers are recognized internationally through the Sydney Accord academic agreement as Engineering Technologists and in Europe under the Directive 2005/36/EC.[7] [8] [9] [10] The professional title for engineers in the United Kingdom as recognized in the Washington Accord is the Chartered Engineer.
Incorporated Engineers currently require an IEng accredited Bachelors or honours degree in engineering or technology, or a Higher National Certificate or Diploma or a Foundation Degree in engineering or technology, plus appropriate further learning to degree level or an NVQ4 or SVQ4 which has been approved for the purpose by a licensed engineering institution. The academic requirements must be accompanied by the appropriate experience in employment. In addition to the experience and academic requirements, the engineering candidate must have three references that vouch for the performance of the individual being considered for professional recognition. There are a number of alternative ways to achieve I Eng status for those that do not have the necessary qualifications for applicants that can clearly show they have achieved the same level as those with qualifications. These ways include:
• Writing a technical report, based upon their experience, and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of engineering principles.
• Taking Engineering Council examinations through the City and Guilds of London Institute.
• Following a work-based learning programme
• Taking an academic programme specified by the institution to which they are applying.
Europe
The State-Certified Engineer BVT is a European Union certificate for professional Technologist. It is granted by a German organisation, the Bundesverband höherer Berufe der Technik, Wirtschaft und Gestaltung e.V. ("Federal Association of higher professions for technology economy and design") or BVT. As of November 2006 the BVT has about 19,000 members in several countries.
A member of the BVT is entitled to use the initials BVT after his name. To achieve this certification a completed apprenticeship program (3.5 years) and a 2 year college diploma in engineering technology with two years relevant experience is needed.

Child Labour Situation in Bangladesh

Bangladesh
Socioeconomic indicators

Demography
• - Total population (millions), 2004: 153 (i)
• - Annual population growth rate(%), 2005 - 15:1.6 (i)
• - Population under age 15 (% of total), 2005:35.2 (i)
• - Urban population (% of total), 2005:25.1 (i)
• - Infant mortality rate(per 1,000 live births), 2005:73 (i)
• -% of children aged 5 - 14 thatare working : 13.4% (iii)
Education
• - Youth literacy rate (%, age 15-24), 2005: 63.6 (i)
• - Female youth literacy rate (%, age 15-24), 2005: 60.3 (i)
• - Primary school enrolment ratio (gross), 2000 - 07: Male 87/Female 91 (ii)
• - Secondary school enrolment ration (gross), 2000 - 07: Male 43/Female 45 (ii)
• - Net primary school attendance, 2000 - 07 (%): Male 79/Female 84 (ii)
Economy
• - GDP/capita (PPP US$), 2005:2,053 (i)
• - Unemployment rate (% of labour force), 1996-2005: 4.3 (i)
• - Population living below $2 a day (%), 2005:84.0 (ii)
Source:
(i) Human Development Report 2007-08
(ii) UNICEF: The State of the World’s Children 2009
(iii) ILO:SIMPOC: Bangladesh Child Labour Country Brief
Child labour situation
In 2002 - 03, the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) conducted the second National Child Labour Survey (NCLS) ( 1 ). This survey has been designed and conducted in the context of the commitments made by the Government of Bangladesh, following the ratification of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182) 1999. According to the survey, there are 4.9 million working children ( 2 ) — 14.2 per cent of the total 35.06 million children in the age group of 5-14 years. The total working child population between 5 and 17 years old is estimated at 7.9 million.
• The proportion of boy and girl child workers, in the age group of 5-17 years, is 73.5 per cent and 26.5 per cent, respectively;
• The total number of working children aged 5-17 years in rural areas is estimated at 6.4 million as against 1.5 million in urban areas;
• As many as 93.3 per cent of all working children in the age group of 5-17 years operate in the informal sector. Agriculture engages 4.5 million (56.4 per cent children), while the services sector engages 2 million (25.9 per cent), and industry, 1.4 million (17.7 per cent);
• A total of 1.3 million children are estimated to be working 43 hours or more per week. More boys than girls are engaged in this form of child labour across all age groups.

Parallel to the National Child Labour Survey, an establishment survey and five baseline surveys on the worst forms of child labour in five segments (welding, automobiles, street children, battery re-charging, and transport) have also been conducted under the supervision of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics with technical and financial support from the ILO. The final reports of the establishment survey and the baseline surveys are now available. The factors that generate child labour in Bangladesh can be summarized as follows:
• Extreme forms of poverty play a crucial role. Child labour is part of a vicious cycle, with poverty as a main cause as well as a main consequence. This implies that child labour cannot be addressed in isolation. Among factors contributing to child labour are rapid population growth, adult unemployment, bad working conditions, lack of minimum wages, exploitation of workers, low standard of living, low quality of education, lack of legal provisions and enforcement, low capacity of institutions, gender discrimination and traditional arguments in favour of child labour. One or more of the above contribute to the large numbers of children working under exploitative or hazardous conditions.
• There is a direct link between child labour and education. Nearly 50 per cent of primary school students drop out before they complete grade 5, and then gravitate towards work, adding to the number of child labourers. The high drop-out rates are correlated with the low quality of public primary education, low adult literacy, low awareness of the importance of education, teacher-student ratio (sometimes this goes up to 1 per 100), non-availability of didactic and learning materials, and the cost of education. Basic primary education is free as far as direct costs and school books are concerned. But many indirect costs are involved as well, such as transport, uniforms, pens, pencils, and notebooks.
• Bangladesh has only limited provision for pre-vocational/vocational skills training and there are related constraints such as the quality of the skills training, market and employment linkages and certification. While this could be an attractive option to working/disadvantaged children and their families, neither the Government of Bangladesh nor many of the non-governmental organizations have the institutional capacity and technical expertise required to deliver skills training facilities effectively;
• Finally, the level of awareness on the issue of child labour and laws prohibiting it is still low. Society in general has a rather indifferent attitude towards the problem. In many cases, it is not realised that the children who are employed in, for example, domestic service, often have no access to education or medical care.

Energy Situation in Bangladesh

The energy situation in Bangladesh continues to deteriorate. Government has acted recently to improve the availability of gas which should improve conditions. This is the third in a series of four articles that reviews briefly the issues and possibilities. In the first of this series the availability and prospects for natural gas were discussed with the conclusion that there were prospects for some increases, but significant increases were far in the future. The second article covered the challenge of increasing the generating capacity of the power sector. The conclusion was that so long as the Government relied on the state enterprises to generate the electricity there would be perpetual shortages; the success of the Awami League in their first government was based on the introduction of the IPPs. Government owned plants are inefficient, poorly operated, and difficult to finance and construct. In this article the alternative fuels besides natural gas are reviewed. There are six possibilities: Hydroelectricity, heavy fuel oil, coal, nuclear, accessing neighbours surpluses and renewable methods such as wind and solar. We review briefly the advantages and problems of each. In the short run there is little that can be done. The only fuel that can be delivered immediately is heavy fuel oil in amounts needed to provide a significant increase of power. So we are talking about the long run here, after 3-4 years.
Hydro electricity: In Bangladesh the very flat landscape means that there are few sites suitable for dams to generate hydroelectricity. Good hydro power plants require both a large flow of water and a large drop of the water over a short distance. While there are rivers with large water flows there is little fall in the level of the river, and no really good dam sites. Major hydro sites are found outside Bangladesh in the foothills of the Himalayas; but development of such sites to benefit Bangladesh requires the agreement of the Indian, Nepalese and Bhutan Governments. So far it has proved impossible to utilise power from such sites. In the very long run one might expect the emergence of a regional management of the hydroelectric energy but we are very very
far from achieving such an outcome.
But there are other problems: there is widespread opposition to hydroelectric project from the environmental movements in the world. This anti large dam movement is very strong in India and Nepal and is certainly alive and well in Bangladesh. Any serious attempts to develop major projects would immediately bring strong protests from such people. Realistically there is no possibility of significant hydroelectric energy over the next 15 years other than the possibility of imports from India but these will be limited as India's hydropower development is limited in the east.
Heavy fuel oil and diesel: This is being proposed and planned for use in Bangladesh as alternatives to natural gas. PDB has not indicated that they have done careful homework on the cost implications of such an approach. There are tenders out for the dual fuel plants; until these are available the cost implications of use of this fuel are uncertain. The cost increases arise from the use of heavy fuel oil or diesel as the fuel and the increased cost of equipment in order to provide for the ability to use both fuels. In addition storage facilities are needed for the heavy fuel oil or diesel. Finally, unlike the gas fired plants which are run off natural gas with a price controlled by the Government, using heavy fuel oil exposes the operator to changes in the market price. The use of heavy fuel oil or diesel in dual purpose facilities may be a sound approach for small facilities that can be completed in the near future, but large projects cannot be operated this way when there is much cheaper coal and natural gas available. One should only commission large gas fired plants when there is sufficient gas available for the lifetime of the plant. Large dual fuel plants present tricky operational problems.
Coal: Three approaches to using coal for power plants have been discussed: Import coal, mine coal using underground methods, mine coal using open pit methods. There are a few comments that have to be made: (1) Coal causes pollution from green house gas emissions; but Bangladesh should not be asked to increase its cost of electricity by not using coal when it is now one of the nations with the least pollution of the atmosphere. (2) Coal does not provide a short term solution; it will take 4-5 years to have plants running and either mines in operation or facilities for handling coal imports constructed and operating. (3) Domestic coal production from open pit mines requires very careful treatment of the resettlement problem and very careful treatment of the ground water management.
a. Import coal: Expensive; requires considerable handling facilities and constant dredging. Cost varies with the international market. I estimate that the fob price will be $70/mt during the next few years and the transport cost to deliver to a power station in Bangladesh will add another $10/mt. Hence I think imported coal will average something of the order of $80/mt over the next five years. Indian coal is imported by truck and costs about $70/mt at the border. [Official invoice value is $40-45/mt; rest is paid through hundi system] Storage and transport by road will be expensive and unless there is strict regulation, tear up the roads. Finally Indian coal does not meet Bangladeshi's environmental standards.
b. Domestic production through underground mining: Expensive; amount that can be extracted from the ore body is only one fifth what can be taken using open pit mining [given the geology of northwest Bangladesh]. Less disturbance of population compared to open pit mines. However, based on the existing mine at Barapukuria the cost is above $100/mt. [Some costs are hidden.] Within in limits one can make a fixed price, long term contract for domestic coal.
c. Domestic production through open pit mining: Lots of coal and relatively cheap. With existing royalties the cost is about $50-55 per mt; another dollar is needed to move the coal to the power plant assuming that the plant is near the mine. The open pit method in the one case that is carefully studied displaces about 8,000 households; the total cost of resettlement, rehabilitation, repair of damage to infrastructure, etc. is included in the cost of the project. Of the three ways to use coal for power, large open pit mines are the most efficient and provide the lowest cost fuel for the power system.
Nuclear: Nuclear plants for generating electricity are a tricky option for Bangladesh, given the high population density and the elaborate safety concerns that go with. Nuclear power electricity is rather expensive as the process of approvals and clearances is so slow that money is tied up in structures and fuel agreements for a long time. Electricity from a nuclear plant is not particularly cheap. While the fuel is cheap, the cost of the plant and all of the associated safety aspects lead to nuclear plants being perhaps twice the cost of a gas or coal plant per unit of capacity. Nuclear plants are probably needed in Bangladesh, starting in fifteen years with a build up in their number during years 25-50. After 30 years the coal will be largely used or committed to existing coal fired plants. The natural gas supply will be uncertain and it will be necessary to use nuclear as the base load unless the hydro can be developed. Bangladesh cannot take the chance on the hydro developments actually going forward. Starting to develop nuclear plants, learning the engineering and management skills that go with that, and developing the safety related skills is an important step forward. But the use of nuclear energy will not solve the problems of providing power over the next ten years.
Regional energy sharing: Small steps have been taken to obtain electricity from India. This is a good idea but one would like to know the price before building transmission lines! In any event South Asia is a power deficit area. It will take time to build up the generating capacity for a regional grid and long negotiation over prices. Significant supply from a regional grid is far away. While there is progress now, Governments come and go. Over the past six decades no significant cooperation has been achieved until the last few months. It is too early to conclude how this will work out.
Renewable energies: Solar driven electrical energy is certainly the rage. There is no doubt greater use of solar energy is an important step forward. However, the full costs are yet to be known. For example battery lifetime in Bangladesh climatic condition is not fully documented. Losses from hailstorms and other violent storms unknown. Of course the basic investment is still rather high for the amount of energy that is produced. The large amounts of electricity needed in Bangladesh cannot come from renewable sources. In my calculations energy requirements call for adding [including replacement] 11-12,000 MWs of capacity over the next decade. We cannot count on renewable sources for more than 1,000 MWs. Costs for renewable will remain high unless battery costs can be reduced.
How might 14,000 MWs be fueled? Here are my rough estimates:
1. Natural gas—5-6,000 MWs; 2. Coal—6-7,000 MWs; 3. Regional—.5-1,000 MWs; 4. Renewable, hydro—.5-1,000 MWs
During the next four years the only available fuels are gas, diesel, and heavy fuel oil. The country is stuck. Starting in the 4th year coal can be available in sufficient volume to provide a secure baseline electricity supply with gas used partly for base load and partly for peaking. Coal is probably cheaper than gas even after allowing for the environmental costs. After ten years new sources - nuclear, hydro, and renewable will be needed in large amounts.

Demographics of Bangladesh

Demographics of Bangladesh
This article is about the demographic features of the population of Bangladesh, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Demographics of Bangladesh


Population: 156,050,883 (July 2009 est.)[1]

Growth rate: 1.292% (2009 est.)
Birth rate: 24.68 births/1,000
population (2009 est.)
Death rate: 8 deaths/1,000
population (2009 est.)
Life expectancy: 60.25 years
–male: 57.57 years
–female: 63.03 years (2009 est.)
Fertility rate: 2.74 children born/woman (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 59.02 deaths/1,000 live births
Age structure:
0-14 years: 34.6% (male 24,957,997/female 23,533,894)
15-64 years: 61.4% (male 47,862,774/female 45,917,674)
65-over: 4% (male 2,731,578/female 2,361,435) (2006 est.)
Sex ratio:
At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Under 15: 1.01 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female
65-over: 0.94 male(s)/female
Nationality:
Nationality: noun: Bengali(s) adjective: Bangladeshi
Major ethnic: Bengali
Minor ethnic: Santhal, Chakma, Garo, Bihari, Oraon, Munda, Rohingya
Language:
Official: Bengali

Spoken: Bengali, Chittagonian, Sylheti, Tribal languages and English

Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous. Indeed, its name derives from the Bengali ethno-linguistic group, which comprises 98% of the population. Bengalis, who also predominate in the West Bengal province of India, are one of the most populous ethnic groups in the world. Variations in Bengali culture and language do exist of course. There are many dialects of Bengali spoken throughout the region. The dialect spoken by those in Chittagong and Sylhet are particularly distinctive. In 2009 the population was estimated at 156 million. Religiously, about 90% of Bangladeshis are Muslims and the remainder are mostly Hindus.
Most of the demographic statistics below are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
Population
The mid-2009 estimate for total population was 156,050,883 which ranks Bangladesh 7th in the world (CIA).
Collection of sources
Naturally there is some degree of uncertainty about the population, especially in a developing country such as Bangladesh with a high level of illiteracy and rural population. For instance, in 2005 there was not a consensus on which of Bangladesh and Russia had the larger population. The UN's ESA ranked Russia 7th in the world and Bangladesh 8th. However, the CIA World Factbook ranked Bangladesh 7th and Russia 8th in the same year. The point is now moot as the population of Russia is in decline while that of Bangladesh is growing.
The following table lists various recent estimates of the population. The baseline for population studies on Bangladesh is the official census which is conducted every 10 years, the last being in 2001.
SourceYearPopulation (millions)National Census[2]1991112National Census[2]2001129UN Population Fund[3]2003150UN Dept Economic and Social Affairs[4]2005142US State Dept[5]2005144Population Reference Bureau[6]2005144CIA World FactBook[7]2006147UN Population Fund[8]2006144CIA World FactBook[9]2007150UN[10]2007159
Genetics
Bangladesh has the world's highest frequency of the M form of mitochondrial DNA. This genetic variant spans many continents, and is the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in Asia.[11] In Bangladesh it represents about 83% of maternal lineages.[12]
Population growth rate
Bangladesh had one of the highest rates of population growth in the world in the 1960s and 1970's. Since then however it has seen a marked reduction in its total fertility rate. Over a period of three decades it dropped from 6.2 to 3.2, according to UNDP figures from 2003.


Demographic evolution of the territory of Bangladesh (1900-2010).
Pop. growth rate:1.292% (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 104
Birth rate:24.68 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 71
Death rate:8 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 82
Net migration rate:-2.53 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 145
Total fertility rate:2.74 children born/woman (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 82
Urban and rural
Like its neighbor India, Bangladesh remains a nation of villages. In spite of the sprawling mega-city of Dhaka, the vast majority live in rural areas.
Urban population: 27% of total population (2009 est.)
Rate of urbanization: 3.5% annual rate of change (2005-2010 est.)
Health
Infant mortality rate
Total: 59.02 deaths/1,000 live births
country comparison to the world: 39
Male: 66.12 deaths/1,000 live births
Female: 51.64 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS
Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
county comparison to the world: 102
People living with HIV/AIDS: 12,000 (2007 est.)
county comparison to the world: 85
Deaths: fewer than 500 (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 8s
Major infectious diseases
Degree of risk: high
Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever
Vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria are high risks in some locations
Water contact disease: leptospirosis
Animal contact disease: rabies (2005)
Religion
The largest religion of Bangladesh is Islam where according to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 89.7% are Muslims, 9.2% are Hindus and the remaining include Buddhism, Christianity and others.[18]
According the 2001 Census, the largest religion in Bangladesh was Islam with over 130 million Muslims at a percentage of nearly 90%, making it the majority religion in the country, the second largest was Hinduism with nearly 9% followed by others, which includes Buddhists, Christians and Animists.[19] The majority of the Muslims are Sunni consisting of 95% of the Muslim population, and the remaining are Shi'a and other sects.[citation needed]
Hindus constitute 9.2% of the population. In 1961, they were 18.5% of the population, but their population declined significantly during the Bangladesh Liberation War due to the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities carried out by the Pakistan Army. As a result, millions of Hindus fled to India and their population in Bangladesh fell to 13.5% by 1974. Since then, the Hindu population has not grown as much as the Muslim population.
Education
Literacy
Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
Total population: 43.1%
Male: 53.9%
Female: 31.8% (2003 est.)
Education expenditures
2.7% of GDP (2005)
country comparison to the world: 151

Bangladesh – Culture, Customs, Language and Etiquette

Bangladesh – Culture, Customs, Language and Etiquette

Facts and Statistics
Capital: Dhaka
Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
Climate: tropical; mild winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); humid, warm rainy monsoon (June to October)
Population: 144,319,628 (July 2005 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims
Religions: Muslim 83%, Hindu 16%, other 1%
Bangladesh has a history. The land, the rivers and the lives of the common people formed a rich heritage with marked differences from neighbouring regions. It has evolved over the centuries and encompasses the cultural diversity of several social groups of Bangladesh.
The culture of Bangladesh is composite and over centuries has assimilated influences of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. It is manifested in various forms, including music, dance and drama; art and craft; folklore and folktales; languages and literature, philosophy and religion, festivals and celebrations, as also in a distinct cuisine and culinary tradition.

Languages in Bangladesh
The official language is Bangla, also known as Bengali. It is the first language of more than 98 percent of the population. It is written in its own script, derived from that of Sanskrit. Many people in Bangladesh also speak English and Urdu.
Bangla vocabulary shows many influences. These include a strong Islamic influence seen in the greetings of "Salaam aleykum" (Peace be unto you) and "Khoda hafez" (God Bless you) and nouns from the Arab world such as "dokan" (shop), "tarikh"(date), "kolom"(pen) and "bonduk" (gun). In West Bengal the Hindu influence is greater with the use of the Hindu greeting "Namashkar".
English has also had an influence on Bangla. During the days of the Raj many words of English origin such as "tebil" (table), "tiffin" (archaic in modern day English meaning snack box) entered Bangla. In more recent time the ever rising global nature of English has lead to words such as "television", "telephone", "video" and "radio" being adopted by Bangla. However, unlike India, there has never been the need for English as a lingua franca and thus Bangla is the state language of Bangladesh.
Bangladeshi Culture & Society
Hierarchy
. Bangladesh is a hierarchical society.
. People are respected because of their age and position.
. Older people are naturally viewed as wise and are granted respect.
. Bangladeshis expect the most senior male, by age or position, to make decisions that are in the best interest of the group. This is also valid in businesses, the majority of which will be family owned/run.
Religion
. The majority of Bangladeshis are Muslim. However, most still very much mix this with pre-Islam folk traditions.
. Bangladeshis identify with the folk traditions of Bengali culture. This includes belief in shamanism and the powers of fakirs (Muslim holy men who are exorcists and faith healers), ojhaa (shamins with magical healing powers), and Bauls (religious mendicants and wandering musicians).
. There is a strong tradition of music, dance, and literature that includes classical devotions of Hindu and Muslim music.
Festivals
. Islam defines many of the festivals in Bangaldesh. These include two Eids (one after Ramadan and one after the Hajj) Shab-e-Qadr (the night of power), Milad un-Nabi (birth date of the Prophet Muhammad) and Shab-e-Barat (the night of the fortune).
. Hindu influences festivals include Durga Puja and Kali Puja (community worshipping of Goddess Durga and Kali).
. On the whole an entire community participates in each other's religious ceremonies.
Customs and Etiquette in Bangladesh
Meeting & Greeting
. Greetings usually take place between members of the same sex.
. The hand shake is common although they may feel rather limp.
. Women will only really be met within business contexts and even so, it is best to wait to see if a hand is extended before doing so.
. The traditional greeting for Muslims is Asalamu alaikum to which the response is wa alaikum salam.
. Naming conventions are very much based on the hierarchical nature of Bangladeshi society.
. Bangladeshis will append a suffix to a person's name to denote respect and the level of closeness between the two people.
. In general, age dictates how people are addressed.
. If people are of the same age, they use first names.
. If the person being addressed is older than the speaker, the person is called by their first name and a suffix that denotes the family relationship.
Gift Giving Etiquette
. Gifts are mainly given between family members at religious holidays, especially after Ramadan and Hajj.
. In cities, it is becoming more common for gifts to be given on birthdays.
. In Bangladesh the importance of gifts is in the thought rather than the value. Part of the reason lies in the fact that gifts should be generally reciprocated and it would be considered rude to offer someone a gift that is difficult to reciprocate.
Some general gift giving etiquette guidelines include:
. When visiting a Bangladeshi's home, it is more common to bring pastries, sweets or good quality chocolates.
. If bringing flowers avoid frangipanis as they are used at funerals.
. Similarly white flowers indicate mourning.
. Do not give alcohol or products containing non-halal meat to Muslims.
. Never give money.
. It is considered bad form to open gifts in front of the giver.
. Gifts are given with two hands.
Dining Etiquette
. If meeting with people for dinner here are some basic rules on etiquette and protocol:
. If invited to a meal it is rude to flatly turn the invitation down. One should always use less direct language to suggest that it may be difficult such as "I will try." or "I will have to see".
. Meals both inside the house and outside will usually be same sex.
. Many people eat with their hands and it may be that you share food from a common dish.
. It would not be seen as impolite if you asked for utensils.
. Ensure you wash your hands before eating.
. Guests are generally served first then the oldest, continuing in order of seniority.
. Do not start eating until the oldest person at the table begins.
. You will constantly be urged to take more food. Simply saying "I'm full" will be taken as a polite gesture and not accepted at face value. It is therefore always best to pace yourself to allow for more servings.
. The left hand is considered unclean so only eat, pass dishes or drink with the right hand.
Business Etiquette, Protocol and Customs in Bangladesh
Communication Styles
. Bangladeshis are quite implicit/indirect communicators. They tend to communicate in long, rich and contextualized sentences which only make sense when properly understood in relation to body language.
. It is important for people who come from implicit/direct cultures to understand that their communication styles may be seen as rude and the information provided inadequate.
. Personal space is less of an issue in Bangladesh than many European cultures. Bengalis stand close when speaking to someone of the same gender and touch is common.
. However, when speaking with a woman the space is often increased.
Meeting & Greeting
. Business etiquette in Bangladesh is reasonably formal. Proper behaviour is expected.
. Men greet each other with a handshake upon arriving and leaving.
. Foreign men should nod to a Bangladeshi woman unless she extends her hand. Businessmen should be addressed by the term "Bahadur" ("Sir"), while women may be addressed as "Begum" ("Madam"). This may be used with or without the surname.
. Wait until your counterpart moves to a first name basis before you do so.
Business Card Etiquette
. Business cards are exchanged after the initial introduction.
. Educational qualifications are valued so include any university degrees.
. Present your business card with the right hand.
. Treat business cards given to you with respect. Merely glancing at it then throwing it on the table would be rude. Study it, comment on it and ideally place it into a business card holder.
Business Meetings
. Meetings in Bangladesh are generally the place where decisions are disseminated rather than made.
. They will usually be led by the most senior present who sets the agenda, the content, and the pace of the activities.
. Meeting structures are not very linear in Bangladesh. There may be an agenda and a starting time, but they only serve as guidelines.
. Completing a meeting fully takes priority over time and may extend well past any scheduled end time.
. Meetings may commence with some small talk.
. Communication is formal and follows a hierarchical structure. Deference to the most senior person in the group is expected. This is especially true when dealing with government officials.
. One should never let their level of professionalism slip. Casual behaviour may be misinterpreted as a lack of respect.
. Never lose your temper or show emotion. This may lead to a loss of face which will mean a loss of dignity and respect.
. The need to avoid a loss of face is also reflected in communication styles. Rather than say no or disappoint people Bangladeshis will phrase sentiments in such as way that it is up to people to read between the lines to understand what is being implied. Phrases such as "we will try", "that may be difficult", or "we will have to give that some though" may really mean "this can't be done".
. Therefore, it is important to ask questions in several ways so you can be certain what was meant by a vague response. Silence is often used as a communication tool.
. Many people comment on the lack of smiles in Bangladesh. This has nothing to do with unfriendliness but rather related to the fact that a serious face is believed to demonstrate maturity.
Eid ul-Fitr
As the most important religious festival for the majority Muslims, the celebration of Eid ul-Fitr has become a part of the culture of Bangladesh. The government of Bangladesh declares holiday for three days on Eid-ul Fitar. People living in towns having their families or parents in villages go to their country homes to meet relatives and celebrate the festival together. All outgoing public transport from the major cities become highly crowded and in many cases the fares tend to rise in spite of government restrictions.


Adult Muslim males in Bangladesh assemble at the Eid Ghah for prayer in the morning of the Eid day
On Eid day, Eid prayers are held all over the country, in open areas like fields or else inside mosques. In Dhaka, the largest Eid prayer is held at the national Eidgah. All major mosques including the Baitul Mukarram also holds prayers. The biggest congregation of Bangladesh is held at Sholakia in Kishoreganj, where about half a million people join the Eid prayer.[1] After the Eid prayers, people return home, visit each other's home and eat sweet dishes called Shirni. Throughout the day gentlemen embrace each other. It is also customary for junior members of the society to touch the feet of the seniors, and seniors returning blessings (sometimes with a small sum of money as a gift).
In the rural areas Eid festival is observed with great fanfare. In some areas Eid fares are arranged. Different types of games including boat race, kabbadi, other traditional Bangladeshi games as well as modern games like football and cricket are played on this occasion.
In urban areas people play music, visit each other's houses and eat special food. Watching movies and television programs has also become an integral part of Eid celebration in urban areas. All local TV channels air special program for several days for this occasion.
Eid ul-Adha
The celebration of Eid ul-Adha is similar to Eid ul-Fitar in many ways. The only big difference is the Qurbani or sacrifice of domestic animals on Eid ul-Adha. Numerous temporary marketplaces of different sizes called Haat operate in the big cities for sale of Qurbani animals (usually cows and goats).
In the morning on the Eid day, immediately after the prayer, those who can afford to slaughter their animal of choice. Less affluent people also take part in the festivity by visiting houses of the affluent who are taking part in qurbani. After the qurbani a large portion of the meat is given to the poor people.
Although the religious doctrine allows the sacrifice anytime over a period of three days starting from the Eid day, most people prefer to perform the ritual on the first day of Eid. However, the public holiday spans over three to four days. Many people from the big cities go to their ancestral houses/homes in the villages to share the joy of the festival with friends and relatives.
Pohela Boishakh
Pôhela Boishakh is the first day of the Bangla Calendar. It is usually celebrated on the 14th of April. Pohela Boishakh marks the start day of the crop season. Usually on Pôhela Boishakh, the home is thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned; people bathe early in the morning and dress in fine clothes. They spend much of the day visiting relatives, friends, and neighbours and going to fair. Fairs are arranged in many parts of the country where various agricultural products, traditional handicrafts, toys, cosmetics, as well as various kinds of food and sweets are sold. The fairs also provide entertainment, with singers, dancers and traditional plays and songs. Horse races, bull races, bullfights, cockfights, flying pigeons, boat racing were once popular. All gatherings and fairs consist a wide spread of Bengali food and sweets.
The most colourful New Year's Day festival takes place in Dhaka. Large numbers of people gather early in the morning under the banyan tree at Ramna Park where Chhayanat artists open the day with Rabindranath Tagore's famous song, Esho, he Boishakh, Esho Esho (Come, Year, Come, Come). A similar ceremony welcoming the new year is also held at the Institute of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka. Students and teachers of the institute take out a colourful procession and parade round the campus. Social and cultural organisations celebrate the day with cultural programmes. Newspapers bring out special supplements. There are also special programmes on radio and television.Prior to this day, special discounts on clothes, furniture, electronics and various deals and shopping discounts are available. Special line of sarees, usually cottons, white sarees with red print/embroidery is sold before this day as everyone dresses up for this day. jasmine flowers are also a huge sale for this event which adorns the women's hair.
Language Movement Day
Language Movement Day is a unique part of the culture of Bangladesh. Every year on February 21 this day is observed to pay tribute to the martyrs who sacrificed their lives to establish Bengali as the official language of then East Pakistan in 1952. The mood of the day is sad and humble.
The celebration of Language Movement Day goes on the entire month of February. Ekushey Book Fair is a book fair arranged to mark this occasion every year. The fair has also become an integral part of the culture of Bangladesh. Authors and readers in Bangladesh eagerly await the fair each year.
To commemorate this movement, Shaheed Minar, a solemn and symbolic sculpture, was erected in the place of the massacre. Today the Shaheed Minar is the centre of cultural activities in Dhaka. On the morning of February 21 each year, people from all walks of life including the national leaders pay tribute to the martyrs by leaving flowers at Shaheed Minar. A very melodious and melancholy song, Amar Bhaier Rokte Rangano, written by Abdul Gaffar Choudhury and composed by Altaf Mahmud, is played repeatedly in electronic media and cultural gatherings throughout the month, and especially on February 21. This song, too, has become a symbolic mark of culture of Bangladesh.
Religion in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population. The majority of Bangladeshis (about 90%) are Muslims, and a small number of Hindus, Christians and Buddhists are also in the country.
People of different religions perform their religious rituals with festivity in Bangladesh. The Government has declared National Holidays on all important religious festivals of the four major religion. Durga Puja, Christmas and Buddha Purnima are celebrated with enthusiasm in Bangladesh. All of these form an integral part of the cultural heritage of Bangladesh.

BANGLADESH TRAVEL

BANGLADESH TRAVEL TIPS

GETTING HERE & AROUND

Besides Bangladesh Biman (the national airline), several international airline carriers (Thai, Singapore Airlines, Silk Air, Air India, British Airways, Aeroflot, etc.) have regular flights into Dhaka. However, the best way is to avoid daffy Dhaka altogether and fly direct to Chittagong (Thai, Phuket Air, Biman, Dragon Air, etc.). Internally, Bangladesh Biman and GMG, the only private sector airline offer many daily flights around the country. You may also enter Bangladesh overland from India via the Benapole border post, about two hours from Kolkata (erstwhile Calcutta). There are direct air-conditioned coach services from the border (or Jessore) to Dhaka (a four hour journey). Comfortable coach services from Dhaka to Chittagong take five hours, but check out the enjoyable train services (day and overnight). Contrary to occasional rumors, there is no overland route to Myanmar, nor does one seem to be in the offing in the foreseeable future. We can assist you with bookings.
ACCOMMODATION

The major cities offer a fair choice of hotels. Dhaka has two five-star hotels and Chittagong has one. You'll get better value (and service) in the many smaller guest houses. Most people find that the hotels in Bangladesh charge considerably higher than similar hotels in adjacent countries, this seems to be true for some unknow reason. The district towns have a more limited choices, but you'll usually find at least one or two hotels that are good, clean and maybe have air-conditioned rooms. Most provide mosquito nets, a single bottom sheet and squat toilets. Government lodges or colonial rest houses are available if you book in advance, but officers have preference. In the villages, you'll usually be invited to stay with one of the families, facilities will be basic. While in the interior or on tour, Bangladesh Ecotours offers either eco-lodges or home-stay accommodation.


FOOD

Meals on our tours are healthy vegetarian hybrid of western styles and traditional, local cuisine of the villages and regions we visit. On tour, meals are prepared by your hosts or by our own cooks. In the smaller towns there is a choice of Bengali or some western foods. There are always plenty of fresh fruits and an amazing variety of seasonal vegetables available. Bottled water is widely available. Alcoholic beverages are of limited availability. 'Home-brew', however, is quite plentiful in the hill districts, as are home-rolled 'cheroots'.


WHEN TO VISIT

Our tours operate year-round. Bangladesh has six seasons, each with its own flavor and mood. The dry, cool season from late September to early May is the most popular season for most westerners. The rainy season begins in June and continues more or less till September. During these monsoons, excluding the interior villages, travel is still possible and one can relish the resplendent ultra-green landscapes. It is also the best season to travel by boat (traditional or motorized) on the country's extensive riverine system. No visit to Bangladesh is complete without experiencing this most relaxing mode of transport.
LANGUAGES

Bengali is the official and most widely spoken language. It is also the eighth most spoken language on earth. Each district has it's own unique dialect, some quite different. In the hill tracts, each of the indigenous tribes has their own language, but most can understand the local Bengali. As a former British colony, a quaint form of English is widely understood and spoken, and used for signboards, directions, etc. You may be pleasantly surprised to find aspiring English speakers not only in the larger towns, but in the remotest villages as well.

CURRENCY

Local currency is the 'Taka', about 59 to the US Dollar and 58 to the Euro as of April, 2003. The notes come in One, Two, Five, Ten, Twenty, Fifty, One Hundred and Five Hundred Taka denominations. There are smaller denomination coins, but except for the one and five Taka coins, most are out of circulation. The notes generally have English numerals on them, but to make things more exciting, same denomination notes may be printed in different sizes, designs and colors. Avoid accepting very old, torn or mended notes or you may end up stuck with them. There is a rumor that polymer notes will gradually replace the paper ones.
TIPS & BEGGING

As formal welfare is almost nonexistent, tips (bakshish) and begging are an accepted reality here and part of the culture -- notably absent in the hilltracts. As many visitors are rather uncomfortable when exposed to this local custom, we have developed a 'traditional' system to avoid any embarrassment. The tour guide collects a 'kitty' at the beginning of the tour (suggested contribution is US$1 per person, per day). The guide uses this to distribute along the way as appropriate. The kitty is not designed as a tip for the group leader or local guides. Those who feel inspired, may choose an individual or group presentation as a gesture of appreciation for your guide.

HARTALS (General Strikes)

Hardly any visit to Bangladesh would be complete without enjoying at least one 'hartal' or general strike. This is a truly unique aspect that hardly any other country can boast of. These are generally called in advance by opposition political parties and the cities and towns simply close down (usually from dawn to noon or till dusk). If you're in the villages or hills, no problem! It's even a great opportunity to rickshaw 'round the cities sans the heavy traffic, noise, crowds and pollution. International flights and trains still operate as do rickshaws and often 'baby taxis', but banks, offices and most shops will stay shuttered. Get used to them and take them in stride, they are a unique, integral and yes - 'eco-friendly' aspect of your total Bangladesh experience. Don't mind if you fail to experience one during your visit, there is little we can do to arrange one for all our guests.
LACK OF 'TOURIST' INFRASTRUCTURE

Frustrations (or more often very interesting memories) may occasionally occur due to the general inefficiencies or lack of some basic services in Bangladesh, it's just another part of the reality (and the experience). A flexible, laid-back attitude and an open mind help in truly enjoying your travels in this region. As your guides, we at Bangladesh Ecotours take it upon ourselves to make your experience as pleasant and hassle-free as possible. Just keep a little smile in your top pocket, and you'll return home with a bag full.
WHAT TO BRING (OR NOT)

Pack light clothing, as well as a sweater or jacket for the cool nights if you come during the winter. For sun protection on treks long-sleeved shirt and pants are best. Women will feel comfortable wearing longish skirts, slacks or 'shalwar khamiz' outfits in markets and towns (you can be more relaxed in the hill tracts). Light rain gear and waterproof footwear are great if you decide to brave the magnificent monsoons. Comfortable walking shoes or hiking boots, a swim suit and a wide brimmed hat are essential. Other than any special needs such as prescribed medicines, almost everything else, including bottled water, is locally available. Options like binoculars, sun screen, insect repellent, and a cheap camera are not amiss - you get the picture. Anything small and light (and personal) like photos, picture postcards, coins and such items make for great gifts for your newly made friends (especially if the name of your country is printed on them). Please avoid plastic-wrapped sweets and the like, there are plenty of local natural sweets and fruits, that are much more healthy for the kids.
ECOTOUR OPTIONS

Varied options are available for individuals and groups on any budget or of any kind to tailor visits for their specific tastes and requirements. Customizing tours is truly our forte and where we really excel. Traveling to both the plains and the hilltracts of Bangladesh can provide a unique multicultural experience -- and you can round off your tour with a few days on the world's longest beach (with hot showers and cold beer to boot!). To help you start planning your own personalized tour, visit our Tour booking page, complete the short form, and we'll email you some proposed itineraries. Or just Email us right now and let us know your innermost desires.
POCKET CASH

Although we handle all expenses, you may be glad you brought a little extra cash along to pick up a few neat stuff at a bargain while on tour. Such things as village craft items, i.e. adorable Mru waist-loom woven blankets (that make great sofa or bed covers), handloom textiles and clothing, tribal jewelry, bamboo or cane basket ware, shell-crafts, traditional pottery, unique musical instruments (including indigenous flutes and drums) and pink pearls. Recently, painted rickshaw art and gaudy cinema posters have become sought-after souvenirs. Anyway, as an experienced ecotour'er or not, you'll know all about this... and if you have a rough time stuffing it all into your luggage when departing, think about leaving last season's designer jeans or pumps with your host's teenage son (or daughter)...
Rainforest and Sundarban Tours
The Sundarbans are the largest continuous mangrove forests in the world, covering about 6,000 sq. km of both land and water. Part of the world's largest delta formed by the great Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, which converge on the Bengal basin. The western portion lies in India and the rest (about 60%) in Bangladesh. About one third of the total area of this forest is covered by river channels, canals and tidal creeks, varying in width from a few meters to five kilometers. The Bangladesh portion of the forest is dominated by high mangroves, the climate is tropical maritime, with lots of rain during the monsoon. During the winter it is mild and dry.
The National Park area is home to a wide variety of mangrove and other flora as well as many species of fish, birds and mammals. This is home to the Royal Bengal tiger (a rarity), as well as Rhesus macaques,clawless otters, leopard cats, fishing cats, spotted deer. In the water are found river dolphins, fifty species of reptiles and eight species of amphibians and the only population of the estuarine, or saltwater crocodile in Bangladesh..
Other tour opportunities that may interest you...

Archeology & History in real time

Bangladesh is heir to a rich cultural heritage and has many fine examples of ancient & mediaeval stone and terra-cotta architecture. In two thousand years, many dynasties and conquerors have ruled Bengal, each leaving their particular mark, despite the hot, humid climate many are still visible. Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples and Moghul mosques dot the landscape, standing above the rice fields. A few are being restored with UNESCO assistance. More recent colonial architecture offers a wide number of differing styles and materials around the country.
City sights, sounds, smells & tastes

On your way in & out of the country, you'll undoubtedly stay in the overcrowded and slightly daffy cities of either Dhaka or Chittagong. But there's totally different side to these erstwhile colonial towns that we can show you - the old bazaars, markets, goldsmiths, Mogul & Portuguese forts, colonial mansions, mosques, temples, and more. Of course there's the modern to explore as well, shopping centers, NGO projects and handicraft shops. Various bazaars and back-streets offer surreal smells and tastes that are often as or more interesting than the 'sights'.

river pollution Bangladesh

Bangladesh river pollution threatens millions
(Reuters) - It was once the lifeline of the Bangladeshi capital.
But the once mighty Buriganga river, which flows by Dhaka, is now one of the most polluted rivers in Bangladesh because of rampant dumping of industrial and human waste.
"Much of the Buriganga is now gone, having fallen to ever insatiable land grabbers and industries dumping untreated effluents into the river," said Ainun Nishat, a leading environmental expert.
"The water of the Buriganga is now so polluted that all fish have died, and increasing filth and human waste have turned it like a black gel. Even rowing across the river is now difficult for it smells so badly," he told reporters.
The plight of the Buriganga symbolizes the general state of many rivers in Bangladesh, a large flat land criss-crossed by hundreds of rivers which faces an uphill battle to keep them navigable and their waters safe for human and aquatic lives.
Bangladesh has about 230 small and large rivers, and a large chunk of the country's 140 million people depend on them for a living and for transportation.
But experts say many of them are drying up or are choked because of pollution and encroachment.
A World Bank study said four major rivers near Dhaka -- the Buriganga, Shitalakhya, Turag and Balu -- receive 1.5 million cubic metres of waste water every day from 7,000 industrial units in surrounding areas and another 0.5 million cubic meters from other sources.
Unabated encroachment that prevents the free flow of water, dumping of medicinal waste and waste of river passengers have compounded the problem, making the water unusable for humans and livestock.
"Unfortunately, all these bad things -- encroachment, dumping of industrial waste and other abuses -- occur in full knowledge of the authorities," said Professor Abdullah Abu Saeed, an eminent campaigner for "Save Buriganga, Save Lives."
Among the top polluters are dozens of tanneries on the banks of the Buriganga. The government has initiated a move to relocate the tanneries outside the capital, and also asked illegal encroachers to vacate the river.
But environmental groups say they defy such orders by using their political links or by bribing people.
"SEPTIC TANK"
Environmentalists say the Buriganga, or the "Old Ganges" once famous for a spectacular cruise, is worst affected.
The river flows by the capital Dhaka, a city of 12 million people, which largely depends on the Buriganga's water for drinking, fishing and carrying merchandise.
"The pollutants have eaten up all oxygen in the Buriganga and we call it biologically dead. It is like a septic tank," said Khawaja Minnatullah, a World Bank specialist on environment and water management.
"There is no fish or aquatic life in this river apart from zero oxygen survival kind of organisms."
Chemicals such as cadmium and chromium, and other elements such as mercury carried by the industrial waste are also creeping into the ground water, posing a serious threat to public health.
"If the pollution is not controlled, we will face a serious health crisis in a year or two or at best three years," said Minnatullah.
Bangladesh enacted a law in 1995 making it compulsory for all industrial units to use effluent treatment plants in a bid to save river waters from pollution, but industry owners often flout the rule.
"Many of them have this plant. But they don't use it as it is expensive," said M.A. Matin, general-secretary of Bangladesh Paribesh Andolon or the Bangladesh Environment Movement.
"We want the rivers fully dredged, their illegal occupation ended and the laws strictly enforced to prevent abuse of waterways," said Nishat.
Environmentalists say they are hopeful.
"Not many days ago Singapore River was also like our Buriganga. But they cleaned it up and now turned it into a great resource," he said.

History of Bangladesh

History of Bangladesh

Bangladesh became one of the large nation states in 1971 when it seceded from Pakistan. Prior to the creation of Pakistan in 1947, modern-day Bangladesh was part of ancient, classical, medieval and colonial India. Since independence, the government has experienced periods of democratic and military rule. The founding leader of the country and its first president was Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. His daughter Sheikh Hasina Wazed is currently the prime minister, as leader of the Awami League. The opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party is led by Begum Khaleda Zia, who is the widow of the revered freedom fighter and former president Ziaur Rahman.

Etymology of Bengal
See also: History of Bengal
The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang/Banga that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.[1][2] Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Vanga (Bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to Mahabharata, Purana, Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of king Vali who founded the Vanga kingdom. The Muslim Accounts refer that "Bong", a son of Hind (son of Hām who was a son of Prophet Noah/Nooh) colonized the area for the first time.[3] The earliest reference to "Vangala" (Bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 AD) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah took the title "Shah-e-Bangalah" and united the whole region under one government for the first time.
Pre-historic Bengal
Stone tools provide the earliest evidence of human settlements. Prehistoric stone implements have been discovered in various parts of West Bengal in the districts of Midnapur, Bankura and Burdwan. But it is difficult to determine, even approximately, the time when people using them first settled in Bengal. It might have taken place ten thousand years (or even more) ago. The original settlers spoke non-Aryan languages—they may have spoken Austric or Austro-Asiatic languages like the languages of the present-day Kola, Bhil, Santal, Shabara and Pulinda peoples. At a subsequent age, peoples speaking languages from two other language families—Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman—seem to have settled in Bengal. Archaeological discoveries during the 1960s furnished evidence of a degree of civilisation in certain parts of Bengal as far back as the beginning of the first millennium BC, perhaps even earlier. The discoveries at Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the valley of the Ajay River (near Bolpur) in Burdwan district and in several other sites on the Ajay, Kunar and Kopai Rivers have thrown fresh light on Bengal's prehistory. Pandu Rajar Dhibi represents the ruins of a trading township, which carried on trade not only with the interior regions of India, but also—possibly indirectly—with the countries of the Mediterranean.
Bengal in mythology
Some deprecatory references indicate that the early people in Bengal were different in ethnicity and culture from the Vedic beyond the boundary of Aryandom and who were classed as 'Dasyus'. The Bhagavata Purana classes them as sinful people while Dharmasutra of Bodhayana prescribes expiatory rites after a journey among the Pundras and Vangas. Mahabharata speaks of Paundraka Vasudeva who was lord of the Pundrasand who allied himself with Jarasandha against Krishna. Mahabharata also speaks of Bengali kings called Chitrasena and Sanudrasena who were defeated by Bhima, Kalidas mentions Raghu defeated a coalition of Vanga kings who were defeated by Raghu and Raghu established a victory column in the Gangetic delta.
Proto-History






Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the Pundra Kingdom.
Hindu scriptures such as the Mahabharata say that Bangladesh was divided among various tribes or kingdoms, including the Nishadas and kingdoms known as the Janapadas: Vanga (southern Bengal), Pundra (northern Bengal), and Suhma (western Bengal) according to their respective totems. These Hindu sources, written by Indo-Aryans in what is now Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, say that the peoples of Bangladesh were not Indo-Aryans. However, Jain scriptures identify Vanga and Anga in Bangladesh as Indo-Aryan. While western Bangladesh, as part of Magadha, became part of the Indo-Aryan civilization by the 7th century BCE, the Nanda Dynasty was the first historical state to unify all of Bangladesh under Indo-Aryan rule.
Overseas Colonization
The Vanga Kingdom was a powerful seafaring nation of Ancient India. They had overseas trade relations with Java, Sumatra and Siam (modern day Thailand). According to Mahavamsa, the Vanga prince Vijaya Singha conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) in 544 BC and gave the name "Sinhala" to the country. Bengali people migrated to the Maritime Southeast Asia and Siam (in modern Thailand), establishing their own colonies there.
Gangaridai Empire
Though north and west Bengal were part of the Magadhan empire southern Bengal thrived and became powerful with her overseas trades. In 326 BCE, with the invasion of Alexander the Great the region again came to prominence. The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the Great withdrew from India anticipating the valiant counter attack of the mighty Gangaridai empire that was located in the Bengal region. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. Diodorus Siculus mentions Gangaridai to be the most powerful empire in India whose king possessed an army of 20,000 horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants trained and equipped for war. The allied forces of Gangaridai Empire and Nanda Empire (Prasii) were preparing a massive counter attack against the forces of Alexander on the banks of Ganges. Gangaridai according to the Greek accounts kept on flourishing at least up to the 1st century AD.
Early Middle Ages
The pre-Gupta period of Bengal is shrouded with obscurity. Before the conquest of Samudragupta Bengal was divided into two kingdoms: Pushkarana and Samatata. Chandragupta II had defeated a confederacy of Vanga kings resulting in Bengal becoming part of the Gupta Empire.
Gauda Kingdom
By the sixth century, the Gupta Empire ruling over the northern Indian subcontinent was largely broken up. Eastern Bengal became the Vanga Kingdom while the Gauda kings rose in the west with their capital at Karnasuvarna (Murshidabad). Shashanka, a vassal of the last Gupta Empire became independent and unified the smaller principalities of Bengal (Gaur, Vanga, Samatata) and vied for regional power with Harshavardhana in northern India. But this burst of Bengali power did not last beyond his death, as Bengal descended afterwards into a period marked by disunity and foreign invasion.
The Pala dynasty
Pala dynasty were the first independent Buddhist dynasty of Bengal. The name Pala (Modern Bengali: পাল pal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal. The Buddhist dynasty lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Somapura Mahavihara built by Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent.


Somapura Mahavihara in Bangladesh is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent, built by Dharmapala.
The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once more for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan) in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Gurjara, Pratiharas and the Dravidas.
The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Orissa and Northern India.
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power and glory to that extent. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The Pala had extensive trade as well as influence in south-east Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the Sailendra Empire (present-day Malaya, Java, Sumatra).
Mahmud Shahi dynasty
Mahmud Shahi dynasty started when Nasiruddin Bughra Khan declared independence in Bengal. Thus Bengal regained her independence back. Nasiruddin Bughra Khan and his successors ruled Bengal for 23 years finally being incorporated into Delhi Sultanate by Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
Ilyas Shahi dynasty
Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah founded an independent dynasty that lasted from 1342-1487. The dynasty successfully repulsed attempts by Delhi to conquer them. They continued to reel in the territory of modern-day Bengal, reaching to Khulna in the south and Sylhet in the east. The sultans advanced civic institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook and cut loose from Delhi. Considerable architectural projects were completed including the massive Adina Mosque and the Darasbari Mosque which still stands in Bangladesh near the border. The Sultans of Bengal were patrons of Bengali literature and began a process in which Bengali culture and identity would flourish. The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted by an uprising by the Hindus under Raja Ganesha. However the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. The dynasty was finally overthrown by the Habshi (Abyssinian) slaves of the sultanate.
Hussain Shahi dynasty
The Habshi rule gave way to the Hussain Shahi dynasty that ruled from 1494-1538. Alauddin Hussain Shah, considered as the greatest of all the sultans of Bengal for bringing cultural renaissance during his reign. He extended the sultanate all the way to the port of Chittagong, which witnessed the arrival of the first Portuguese merchants. Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah gave refuge to the Afghan lords during the invasion of Babur though he remained neutral. However Nusrat Shah made a treaty with Babur and saved Bengal from a Mughal invasion. The last Sultan of the dynasty, who continued to rule from Gaur, had to contend with rising Afghan activity on his northwestern border. Eventually, the Afghans broke through and sacked the capital in 1538 where they remained for several decades until the arrival of the Mughals.
Pashtun rule
[edit] Suri dynasty
Sher Shah Suri established the Sur dynasty in Bengal. After the battle of Chausa he declared himself independent Sultan of Bengal and Bihar. Sher Shah was the only Muslim Sultan of Bengal to establish an empire in northern India. The Delhi Sultanate Islam Shah appointed Muhammad Khan Sur as the governor of Bengal. After the death of Islam Shah, Muhammad Khan Sur became independent. Muhammad Khan Sur was followed by Ghyiasuddin Bahadur Shah and Ghyiasuddin Jalal Shah. The Pashtun rule in Bengal remained for 44 years. Their most impressive achievement was Sher Shah's construction of the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon, Delhi and Peshawar.
Mughal period
Bengal came once more under the control of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. At that time Dhaka became a Mughal provincial capital. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern the region especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River remained outside the mainstream of Mughal politics. The Bengali ethnic and linguistic identity further crystallized during this period, since the whole of Bengal was united under an able and long-lasting administration. Furthermore its inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature.
In 1612, during Emperor Jahangir's reign, the defeat of Sylhet completed the Mughal conquest of Bengal with the exception of Chittagong. At this time Dhaka rose in prominence by becoming the provincial capital of Bengal. Chittagong was later annexed in order to stifle Arakanese raids from the east. A well-known Dhaka landmark, Lalbagh Fort, was built during Aurangzeb's sovereignty.
History repeated itself as the frontier Bengal province broke off from a Delhi-based empire around the time Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Murshid Quli Khan ended Dhaka's century of grandeur as he shifted the capital to Murshidabad ushering in a series of independent Bengal Nawabs. Nawab Alivardi Khan showed military skill during his wars with the Marathas. He completely routed the Marathas from Bengal. He crushed an uprising of the Afghans in Bihar and made the British pay 150,000 Tk for blocking Mughal and Armenian trade ships.
Europeans in Bengal
Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the fifteenth century. They were followed by representatives from the Netherlands, France, and the British East India Company. The Mughal Subahdar of Bengal Kasim Khan Mashadi completely destroyed the Portuguese forces in the Battle of Hoogly (1632). About 10,000 Portuguese men and women died in the battle and 4,400 were sent captive to Delhi.
During Aurangzeb's reign, the local Nawab sold three villages, including one then known as Calcutta, to the British. Calcutta was Britain's first foothold in Bengal and remained a focal point of their economic activity. The British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to the rest of Bengal. Job Charnock was one of the first dreamers of a British empire in Bengal. He waged war against the Mughal authority of Bengal which led to the Anglo-Mughal war for Bengal (1686–1690). Shaista Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, defeated the British in the battles of Hoogly as well as Baleshwar and expelled the British from Bengal. Captain William Heath with a naval fleet moved towards Chittagong but it was a failure and he had to retreat to Madras.
British rule
The British East India Company gained official control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This was the first conquest, in a series of engagements that ultimately lead to the expulsion of other European competitors. The defeat of the Mughals and the consolidation of the subcontinent under the rule of a corporation was a unique event in imperialistic history. Kolkata (Anglicized as "Calcutta") on the Hooghly became a major trading port for bamboo, tea, sugar cane, spices, cotton, muslin and jute produced in Dhaka, Rajshahi, Khulna, and Kushtia.
Scandals and the bloody rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny prompted the British government to intervene in the affairs of the East India Company. In 1858, authority in India was transferred from the Company to the crown, and the rebellion was brutally suppressed. Rule of India was organized under a Viceroy and continued a pattern of economic exploitation. Famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. The British Raj was politically organized into seventeen provinces of which Bengal was one of the most significant. For a brief period in the early twentieth century, an abortive attempt was made to divide Bengal into two zones, West Bengal and East Bengal & Assam.
Creation of Pakistan
As the independence movement throughout British-controlled India began in the late nineteenth century gained momentum during the twentieth century, Bengali politicians played an active role in Mohandas Gandhi's Congress Party and Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League, exposing the opposing forces of ethnic and religious nationalism. By exploiting the latter, the British probably intended to distract the independence movement, for example by partitioning Bengal in 1905 along religious lines. The split only lasted for seven years.
At first the Muslim League sought only to ensure minority rights in the future nation. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution which envisaged one or more Muslim majority states in South Asia. Non-negotiable was the inclusion of the Muslim parts of Punjab and Bengal in these proposed states. The stakes grew as a new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten of Burma was appointed expressly for the purpose of effecting a graceful British exit. Communal violence in Noakhali and Calcutta sparked a surge in support for the Muslim League, which won a majority of Bengal's Muslim seats in the 1946 election. Accusations have been made that Hindu and Muslim nationalist instigators were involved in the latter incident. At the last moment Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sarat Chandra Bose came up with the idea of an independent and unified Bengal state, which was endorsed by Jinnah. This idea was vetoed by the Indian National Congress.
British India was partitioned and the independent states of India and Pakistan were created in 1947; the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half of Bengal became the East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan) state of Pakistan and the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal.
Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. In 1956 a constitution was at last adopted, making the country an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth". The nascent democratic institutions foundered in the face of military intervention in 1958, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.
Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan.
When Mohammad Ali Jinnah died in September 1948, Khwaja Nazimuddin became the Governor General of Pakistan while Nurul Amin was appointed the Chief Minister of East Bengal. Nurul Amin continued as the Chief Minister of East Bengal until 2 April 1954. The abolition of the Zamindari system in East Bengal (1950) and the Language Movement were two most important events during his tenure.
The Bengali Language Movement
The question as to what would be the state language of Pakistan was raised immediately after its creation. The central leaders and the Urdu-speaking intellectuals of Pakistan declared that Urdu would be the state language of Pakistan, just as Hindi was the state language of India. However, Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan, and the students and intellectuals of East Pakistan, demanded that Bengali (Bangla) be made one of the state languages, arguing that it was in any case the native language of the majority (54% native speakers as opposed to 7% native Urdu speakers) in the whole of Pakistan.The Bengali Language Movement began in 1948 and reached its climax in a demonstration on 21 February 1952 at which several demonstrators were killed by police. After a lot of controversy over the language issue, the final demand from East Pakistan was that Bangla must be the official language and the medium of instruction in East Pakistan, and that for the central government it would be one of the state languages along with Urdu. The first movement on this issue was mobilised by Tamaddun Majlish headed by Professor Abul Kashem. Gradually many other non-communal and progressive organisations joined the movement, which finally turned into a mass movement, and ended in the adoption of Bengali as one of the state languages of Pakistan.
Politics: 1954 - 1970
The first election for East Bengal Provincial Assembly was held between 8 March and 12 March 1954. The Awami Muslim League, Krishak-Sramik Party and Nezam-e-Islam formed the United Front, on the basis of 21-points agenda.
Notable pledges contained in the 21-points were:
• making Bengali one of the main state languages
• autonomy for the province
• reforms in education
• independence of the judiciary
• making the legislative assembly effective
The United Front won 215 out of 237 Muslim seats in the election. The ruling Muslim League got only nine seats. Khilafat-E-Rabbani Party got one, while the independents got twelve seats. Later, seven independent members joined the United Front while one joined the Muslim League.
There were numerous reasons for the debacle of the Muslim League. Above all, the Muslim League regime angered all sections of the people of Bengal by opposing the demand for recognition of Bangla as one of the state languages and by ordering the massacre of 1952.
The United Front got the opportunity to form the provincial government after winning absolute majority in the 1954 election. Of the 222 United Front seats, the Awami Muslim League had won 142, Krishak-Sramik Party 48, Nezam-i-Islam 19, and Ganatantri Dal 13.
The major leaders of the United Front were Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani of Awami Muslim League and A. K. Fazlul Huq of Krishak-Sramik Party. Suhrawardy and Bhasani did not take part in the election and Fazlul Huq was invited to form the government. But a rift surfaced at the very outset on the question of formation of the cabinet. The unity and solidarity among the component parties of the United Front soon evaporated. Finally, on 15 May, Fazlul Huq arrived at an understanding with the Awami Muslim League and formed a 14-member cabinet with five members from that party.
But this cabinet lasted for only fourteen days. The Muslim League could not concede defeat in the elections in good grace. So, they resorted to conspiracies to dismiss the United Front government. In the third week of May, there were bloody riots between Bengali and non-Bengali workers in different mills and factories of East Bengal. The United Front government was blamed for failing to control the law and order situation in the province.
Fazlul Huq was then quoted in an interview taken by The New York Times correspondent John P Callaghan and published in a distorted form that he wanted the independence of East Bengal. Finally, on 29 May 1954, the United Front government was dismissed by the central government and Governor's rule was imposed in the province, which lasted till 2 June 1955.
Curiously enough within two months of his sacking, Fazlul Huq was appointed the central Home Minister. As Home Minister, Fazlul Huq utilised his influence to bring his party to power in East Bengal. Naturally, the United Front broke up. The Muslim members of the United Front split into two groups. In 1955 the Awami Muslim League adopted the path of secularism and non-communalism, erased the word 'Muslim' from its nomenclature and adopted the name "Awami League".[7]
Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation, industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the fair-skinned, Persian-cultured Punjabis and Afghans. Only one regiment in the Pakistani Army was Bengali. And many Bengali Pakistanis could not share the natural enthusiasm for the Kashmir issue, which they felt was leaving East Pakistan more vulnerable and threatened as a result.
Independence
After the Awami League won all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan's National Assembly in the 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League.
The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending National Assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.
On March 2, 1971, a group of students, led by A S M Abdur Rob, student leader & VP of DUCSU (Dhaka University Central Students Union) raised the new (proposed) flag of Bangla under the direction of Swadhin Bangla.
On March 3, 1971, student leader Sahjahan Siraj read the Sadhinotar Ishtehar (Declaration of independence) at Paltan Maidan in front of Bangabandhu Shaikh Mujib along with student and public gathering.
On March 7, there was a historical public gathering in Paltan Maidan to hear the guideline for the revolution and independence from Shaikh Mujib, the frontier leader of movement that time. Although he avoided the direct speech of independence as the talks were still underway, he influenced the mob to prepare for the separation war. The speech is still considered a key moment in the war of liberation, and is remembered for the phrase, "Ebarer Shongram Muktir Shongram, Ebarer Shongram Shadhinotar Shongram...." ("This time, the revolution is for freedom; this time, the revolution is for liberation....")
Formal Declaration of Independence
After the military crackdown by the Pakistan army began on the night of March 25, 1971 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organized a provisional government afterwards. Before being held up by the Pakistani Army Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave a hand note of the declaration of the independence of Bangladesh and it was circulated amongst people and transmitted by the then East Pakistan Rifles' wireless transmitter. Bengali Army Major Zia-Ur-Rahman captured Kalurghat Radio Station in Chittagong and read the declaration of independence of Bangladesh. On 27th march Major Zia read the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, "I, Major Zia-ur-Rahman, who hereby declare the independence of Bangladesh, on behalf of our great national leader Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman".
The Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh was formed in Meherpur, (later renamed as Mujibnagar a place adjacent to the Indian Border). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was announced to be the head of the state. Tajuddin Ahmed became the prime minister of the government. There the war plan was sketched. A war force was established named "Muktibahini". M. A. G. Osmani was assigned as the Chief of the force. The land sketched into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. Along with this sectors on the later part of the war Three special forces were formed namely Z Force, S Force and K Force. These three forces name were derived from the initial letter of the commandar's name. The training and most of the arms-ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which were supported by India. As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam, Tripura and West Bengal.
The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and on December 3, 1971, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangla Desh ("Country of Bangla") was finally established the following day. The new country changed its name to Bangladesh on January 11, 1972 and became a parliamentary democracy under a constitution. Shortly thereafter on March 19 Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India.
Post-independence
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972-75
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.[8]
The first parliamentary elections were held in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. The new Bangladesh government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. In December 1974, in the face of continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder, Mujib proclaimed a state of emergency, limited the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, banned all the newspaper except four government supported papers, and introduced one-party system baning all the other parties.
Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, criticism of Mujib grew. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque Ahmed, was formed.[8]
Ziaur Rahman, 1975-81
Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as strongman. In the historic 7 November 1975, "Jatiyo Biplob O Shanghoti Dibosh" the army captured the power freed Major Zia. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, and instituted the Martial Law Administration (MLA).[8]
In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's forced retirement five months later, promising national elections in 1978.[8]
As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Zia won a five-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. Democracy and constitutional order were fully restored when the ban on political parties was lifted, new parliamentary elections were held in February 1979. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.[8]
In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president, and elected president as the BNP's candidate six months later. Sattar followed the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet.[8]
Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982-90
In March 1982 Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad suspended the constitution and declared martial law citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, and won overwhelming public support for his regime in a national referendum in March 1985, although turnout was small. Political life was liberalized through 1985 and 1986, and the Jatiya (National) Party was established as Ershad’s vehicle for the transition back to democracy.[8]
Parliamentary elections were held in May 1986, but were boycotted by the BNP, now led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.[8]
Ershad retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections in October 1986, and won 84% of the vote. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates.[8] In November 1986, martial law was lifted, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.[8]
In July 1987, after the government hastily pushed through a bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. As the opposition organized protest marches and nationwide strikes, the government arrested scores of opposition activists. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.[8]
The elections were held despite an opposition boycott, and the ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament passed a large number of bills, including in June 1988 a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion.[8]
On December 6, 1990, following general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order,[8] Ershad resigned. On February 27, 1991, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.[8]
Khaleda Zia, 1991-96
BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, becoming prime minister. The electorate approved changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a \In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to general strikes and an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the opposition. In late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament, and pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.[8]
In February, Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the Parliament amended the constitution to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections.
Sheikh Hasina, 1996-2001
Elections were held in June 1996 which were found by international and domestic election observers to be free and fair. The Awami League won a plurality of the seats, and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party of deposed president Ershad. AL leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.[8]
In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to boycott Parliament, and stage nationwide general strikes. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government.
Four Party Aliiance led by BNP, 2001-2006
The four-party alliance led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time.[8]
An grenade attack on a rally of Sheikh Hasina killed 23 people on August 21, 2004. On August 17, 2005, near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two persons. An extremist Islamist group named Jama'atul Mujahideen, Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts, which aimed to press home JMB's demand for a replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Hundreds of senior and mid-level JMB leaders were arrested.[8]
In February 2006, after sporadic boycotts, the AL returned to Parliament, demanded early elections and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. Dialogue between the Secretaries General of the main ruling and opposition parties failed to sort out the electoral reform issues.[8]
In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary end
Caretaker Government, Oct 2006-Jan 2009
On January 3, 2007, the Awami League announced it would boycott the January 22 parliamentary elections. The AL planned a series of country-wide general strikes and transportation blockades.[8]
On January 11, 2007, President Iajuddin Ahmed declared a state of emergency, resigned as Chief Adviser, and indefinitely postponed parliamentary elections. On January 12, 2007, former Bangladesh Bank governor Fakhruddin Ahmed was sworn in as the new Chief Adviser, and ten new advisers (ministers) were appointed. Under emergency provisions, the government suspended certain fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution and detained a large number of politicians and others on suspicion of involvement in corruption and other crimes. The government announced elections would occur in late 2008.[8] As of November 19, 2008, elections were scheduled for December 8, 2008.[9]
In the summer of 2007 the government arrested Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia, Bangladesh's two most influential political leaders, on charges of corruption. Hasina and Zia have challenged the cases filed against them under the Emergency Power Rules, which deny the accused the right to bail. While the cases are under judicial review, the two leaders continue to be imprisoned as of March 2008.[8]
Grand Alliance January 2009-present
On 19 November 2008 Awami League & Jatiya Party agreed to contest the elections jointly under the Caretaker Government to be held on 29 December 2008. Out of the 300 Constituencies in the Parliament, Ershad's Jatiya Party will contest from 49 seats and Awami League and members of a leftist wing Fourteen Party Coalition from the rest 250 seats.[10] Thus the Grand Alliance emerged in Bangladesh; known as Mohajote in Bangla
On December 29, 2008 Bangladesh went to the polls and the nation elected the Grand Alliance which was led by Sheikh Hasina's Awami League and backed by Hussain Mohammed Ershad's Jatiya Party. On the other hand Khaleda Zia's BNP-led Four Party Alliance plagued by allegations of Khaleda Zia's [11][12] and her infamous son Tareq Rahman's corruption allegations [13][14][15], suffered the most embarrassing defeat ever in Bangladesh's history.
Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister and formed the government and a cabinet which included ministers from Jatiya Party although any post for Hussain Mohammed Ershad, is yet to be decided as the earlier agreed Presidency seems elusive.
The mutiny of borderguards (BDR) took place from 25 to 27 February 2009. More than a thousand BDR soldiers took over the BDR headquarters, and held many of their officers hostage. By the second day fighting spread to 12 other towns and cities.[16][17] The mutiny ended as the mutineers surrendered their arms and released the hostages[18] after a series of discussions and negotiations with the government.[19] 52 army died in the incident.